Ref: mat2_b05

<<<go back to Paper Table of contents page<<

Part B-5

5. Why some didn't want to fight

Excerpts & Historical Context: Parallel Lives in perspective

Resistance to WWII : Some Organized, Some Farcical The resistance took many forms. Some was well organized and some boarded on the farcical. For example, in the Spring of 1935, on-campuses of women's colleges, the Association of Future Gold Star Mothers called for free trips to Europe so that they could inspect the future graves of their future sons. - Arthur. Schlesinger, A Life in the 20^th Century	Pearl Harbor changed dissent in USA JJK: There was a lot of dissent up till that point [Pearl Harbor]. You had people called "America Firsters" and they didn't want to have anything to do with the European War. I thought back in 1939 that they were altogether wrong. And they were still fighting until Pearl Harbor. And then when Pearl Harbor came along, they adjusted their thinking and got into it. –Jack Keefe
Enlisting Overseas Once War Declared 74. JJK I remember when I was in Trinidad [West Indies]? And the Pearl Harbor assault came on a Sunday. And there were a lot of guys there that did not want to go into service. But the next day as soon as war was declared, they were down at the Navy and the Army trying to enlist right in Trinidad. No, people were different then because they felt that this was a just war. There was no quibbling about it. The congress got behind it 100%. The people got behind it 100%. How could you quibble with this nut Hitler. –Jack Keefe	¾ of Quakers declined CO Status The depth of the personal dilemma of conscience was obvious in the response of many from the traditional pacifist religions. For example “three quarters of all the Quakers drafted declined to claim CO status, despite the official antiwar position of their church. For most of them it was a conflict in values, as when earlier Quakers in the Civil War shed their pacifism to fight for the defeat of slavery. Now, in this war Quakers decided they had to fight to overthrow fascism”. –Milton Meltzer, Ain’t Gonna Study War No More: The Story of the American Peace Seeker
Interview Abbreviations: JJK = Jack [John Joseph] Keefe; WDK = Wanda Davis Keefe; AKK = Adhiratha Kevin Keefe

Table of Contents

5. Why some didn't want to fight.............................................................................................................. 1

War Resisters........................................................................................................................................................... 2

NGOs support for alternative service and Actions in Pre-War Years........................................................... 2

Women’s Peace Movement: Building on Service................................................................................................... 3

American Friends Service Committee- assist victims of War................................................................................ 3

Between the Wars - Building for Peace.................................................................................................................. 4

Conscientious Objectors who served in WWII [Good War]............................................................................ 4

Moral Delima – ¾ Eligible Decline Conscious Objector Status............................................................................. 5

Why individuals Fought:...................................................................................................................................... 5

Soldier Volunteers for World War 2....................................................................................................................... 6

74. JJK I remember when I was in Trinidad [West Indies]? And the Pearl Harbor assault came on a Sunday. And there were a lot of guys there that did not want to go into service. But the next day as soon as war was declared, they were down at the Navy and the Army trying to enlist right in Trinidad. No, people were different then because they felt that this was a just war. There was no quibbling about it. The congress got behind it 100%. The people got behind it 100%. How could you quibble with this nut Hitler...................... 6

Pearl Harbor Solidified the Country...................................................................................................................... 6

76. JJK That just solidified the whole country. There was a lot of dissent up till that point. You had people called "America Firsters" and they didn't want to have anything to do with the European War. I thought back in 1939 that they were altogether wrong. And they were still fighting until Pearl Harbor. And then when Pearl Harbor came along, they adjusted their thinking and got into it. Yeah times were different then. 6

Hierarchy of Patriotic Service................................................................................................................................ 6

Deferment................................................................................................................................................................. 7

Deferred but volunteering to Support War in related Work.................................................................................. 7

Request Deferment be Ignored and allowed to serve............................................................................................. 7

63. JJK Oh definitely, I'm working on it. Yeah. It is called "you are never one of the boys". And it starts really about how I tried to get into the Canadian, British and the French service in 1939 at the declaration of war. But I made my first appeal to the United States. It was to Captain. Dan Callaghan, who later became an Admiral. And I wrote to him. He was the President's navel assistant and he wrote me back at some length. Then of course going over the war, [I had correspondence with], Secretary of the Navy Frank Knox, Admiral Nimitz, Admiral Halesy and so forth............................................................................................................................................................ 7

To those born after 1940 it may seem that it was a foregone conclusion that America would enter the War against the Axis Powers to join England and France against Nazi Germany. To those who lived through the era it was not so simple.

War Resisters

After the First World War, many people were committed to not repeating the experience. Much study was done as to the causes and the hidden economic and other forces that benefited from the war. There was passionate resistance to not committing Americas resources to another European War. The resistance took many forms. Some was well organized and some boarded on the farcical. For example, in the Spring of 1935, on-campuses of women's colleges, the Association of Future Gold Star Mothers called for free trips to Europe so that they could inspect the future graves of their future sons. In April of 1939 A. Schlesinger had described FDR's interventionist policy as "all very fine, and ethically inspiring, but it seems to me extremely dangerous. He seems to delusions of Wilsonian grandeur. The "America First" Committee " demanded that Congress refrain from War , even if England was on the verge of defeat. [B05-N01]

NGOs support for alternative service and Actions in Pre-War Years

Even before the Second World War America had a long established tradition of Anti-War and Pro-Peace movements. The Women’s Peace Movement [1915-1945] and the American Friend’s Service Committee [1917-1947] are examples of non-governmental organizations which supported individual acts of conscience as well as the development of institutions or instruments to avoid wars and maintain peace. [B05-N02]

Women’s Peace Movement: Building on Service

The International Congress of Women in 1915 at The Hague was presided over by the American Leader Jane Addams who had founded the very successful Hull House Settlement House in Chicago. The activities of the women's peace movement, which followed this, and successive congresses position papers etc. and impacted on the creation of the League of Nations. By undertaking efforts to mobilize around a specific local issue far-seeing and compassionate problem solvers were often led to bigger issues involving wider communities. For example, Jane Addams settlement house efforts and the Lillian Wall’s work with the Henry Street Settlement house in N.Y. led them to participate in peace activities, which transcended their original vision and missions. Because of her well-respected settlement house work the president had once called Jane Addams “the most effective citizen in America”. However as she became more involved in the peace movement before World War I, she was ridiculed in the press and denounced as America moved closer to war. Many years later Jane Addams was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931. The successor organization, the “Women’s League for Peace and Freedom”, helped to keep the awareness of the public on the creative alternatives that must be attempted to prevent a war. Even as the 2^nd WW was winding down the “peace movement” advocates helped focus public awareness on how important it was that the same mistakes weren’t made after WWII that were made after WWI. For example the USA did not join the League of Nations and the European unresolved resentments helped to set the stage for WWII. The WLPF continues to support alternative reactions to world crises and conflict without resorting to war. Some of their most important work has been with peace education projects.

American Friends Service Committee- assist victims of War

The American Friends Service Committee was begun during WWI when the draft exempted members of historic peace churches such as the Quakers, Mennonite and the Brethren from combat duty but not alternative service. Young members of the Quakers [Friends] requested assignments in assisting the victims of war. Many Friends and others were trained at Haverford College in Philadelphia and a number of graduates of the program became an integral part of the American Red Cross. In later years Friends conducted relief programs in various parts of the world, assisted victims and refugees of Spain’s civil war and in late the 1930’s they helped transport medical supplies over the famous Burma Road in West China during the War with Japan. They also served both sides during the Communist Revolution. Because of the demonstrated courage and experience in difficult circumstances, Friends gained a fine reputation with relief organizations. Members AFSC later served with UNRRA and such organizations as UNICEF after the 2^nd World War. Many have been role models for Americans of different faiths and other nationalities that worked beside them. Their approach underscore that not only is war a sign of failure for all involved but that constant efforts must be made to prevent disagreements from escalating into armed conflict. AFSC efforts have sought to minimize destruction and maximize the possibilities that the populations will learn other more effective and less expensive ways to deal with conflict.

Between the Wars - Building for Peace

During the 1930’s and 1940’s many organizations began or expanded what they believed was possible to accomplish. They were sometimes useful to liberal government planners who could count on the organizing skill and dedication of some NGO’s to arouse support for reforms being considered by congress. “They promoted disarmament and peace education. They saw that simply being against the use of violence was not enough, they had to work for a society whose structure allowed no place for violence ……before world War I they had believed that peace was morally right and practically desirable. Now they knew that modern science and technology, rapidly accelerating and uncontrollable, had made peace necessary if mankind was to survive.” [B05-N03]

Conscientious Objectors who served in WWII [Good War]

After the attack on Pearl harbor opposition to the War was diminished. Some of the people of conscience who had originally opposed the war actively supported it or transformed their resistance into making the impact on civilian populations less disastrous. [para 4 of akp99013.rtf]

Moral Delima – ¾ Eligible Decline Conscious Objector Status

The second WW caused a terrible moral dilemma for many that were active in building for long term peace. The depth of the personal dilemma of conscience was obvious in the response of many from the traditional pacifist religions. For example “three quarters of all the Quakers drafted declined to claim CO status, despite the official antiwar position of their church. For most of them it was a conflict in values, as when earlier Quakers in the Civil War shed their pacifism to fight for the defeat of slavery. Now, in this war Quakers decided they had to fight to overthrow fascism”. [B05-N04]

Two other internationally minded Non Governmental Organizations which began after WWI and have had an impact to the present day are: The League of Women’s Voters [1920], the War Resisters League [1923]

Why individuals Fought:

As the extent of the Nazi atrocities began to be recognized by the American Public the feeling towards intervention grew. Those who had been supporting non-intervention, were becoming more concerned for the practical impact of the growing Fascist menace in Europe. The case against war was less convincing to many. It was made, it seemed to Schlesinger, with genuine moral fervor that "speaks well for our moral well-being, however dubiously it speaks for our intelligence. [B05-N05]. The Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor and American formally declared War on Japan and that swung many people to support the war effort.

Jack speaks about some of his friends who were eligible for deferments but volunteered to serve in the Armed forces. After the attack on Pearl Harbor, Jack also witnessed an increase in enthusiasm to enlist by civilians overseas:

Soldier Volunteers for World War 2

[excerpt below, for full see jk00ap16.doc, paraZ]

72. JJK Like Vinnie Dunleavy, was a New York City Fireman. He was not eligible for the draft because they needed Fireman. But he thought that he wanted to get in. So he signed up. Jack Farell didn't have to go. He was married with a child. And he signed up and went. Lee Rosenfield, he was eligible to go. But he decided to do the thing the hard way. He went into the Naval Air Force, which was really a tough job. He was a good pilot.

73. AKK So that was one of the reasons it was so different in a sense than the Vietnam war? People were trying to get in.

74. JJK I remember when I was in Trinidad [West Indies]? And the Pearl Harbor assault came on a Sunday. And there were a lot of guys there that did not want to go into service. But the next day as soon as war was declared, they were down at the Navy and the Army trying to enlist right in Trinidad. No, people were different then because they felt that this was a just war. There was no quibbling about it. The congress got behind it 100%. The people got behind it 100%. How could you quibble with this nut Hitler.

Pearl Harbor Solidified the Country

[excerpt below, for full see jk00ap16.doc, paraZ]

75. AAK What was it like once the Japanese made the attack on Pearl Harbor.

76. JJK That just solidified the whole country. There was a lot of dissent up till that point. You had people called "America Firsters" and they didn't want to have anything to do with the European War. I thought back in 1939 that they were altogether wrong. And they were still fighting until Pearl Harbor. And then when Pearl Harbor came along, they adjusted their thinking and got into it. Yeah times were different then.

Jack, who by this time was already overseas, has an interesting story of how he heard of the Attack on pearl Harbor and how rumors spread.[See part B-4 “Early Sense of War”]

Hierarchy of Patriotic Service

Schlessinger mentions a short story -dealing with the inferiority of any person in support of the War might feel when they compared themselves to others in the service. There was a gradual hierarchy that only death could top. The civilian could be compared to inductee, to those in basic training, to those embarking for Europe, those already in England, to those on the front line. The Quartermaster Corps could feel inferior to the Artillery and the Artillery to the Infantry. And in the infantry those new to line, could admire those present for 30 days, those wounded, those who had serious injuries [face blown off] or who died in the battle. [B05-N06] Individuals fought to support buddies and units, avoid shame or sanctions, to get revenge, especially for Pearl Harbor. --above all to win and get home [B05-N07].

Deferment

Great majority of wartime men did not go to war - or even to the armed forces. One in every three between the ages of 17 and 35 served in the military during WWII. [Total of 16 million in all served] Deferments were given for key industrial & agriculture work, college students and at first for fathers. There were also rejections for variety of physical and mental reasons. [B05-N08]

David Kennedy pointed out that those deferments were sought not just to support the war effort in other ways. Some just didn't want to go and were willing to try farm work - which was exempt or even get married and have children which was exempt for the beginning years of the war. “Deferments were coveted, and their distribution traced a rough profile of patterns of political power, racial prejudice, and cultural values in wartime America.” [B05-N09]

Deferred but volunteering to Support War in related Work

Bad eyesight kept A. Schlessinger out of the draft but he had a back up plan to find a job in Washington to support the war effort. [B05-N010] Jack Keefe was kept out of the armed forces by Polio but served in a number of civilian posts outside the country.

Request Deferment be Ignored and allowed to serve

In support of the war effort, Jack did go overseas, but his saga of trying to enter into the active armed service is a story in itself.

[excerpt below, for full see jk00ap16.doc, para Y, 62]

62. AAK Are you still thinking that you might try to put together some of those things into a book?

63. JJK Oh definitely, I'm working on it. Yeah. It is called "you are never one of the boys". And it starts really about how I tried to get into the Canadian, British and the French service in 1939 at the declaration of war. But I made my first appeal to the United States. It was to Captain. Dan Callaghan, who later became an Admiral. And I wrote to him. He was the President's navel assistant and he wrote me back at some length. Then of course going over the war, [I had correspondence with], Secretary of the Navy Frank Knox, Admiral Nimitz, Admiral Halesy and so forth.

Jack has preserved 11 pieces of Correspondence to document the responses he received between 07 Jan 1941 to 28 Mar 1944 concerning his request to be considered for entry in the Armed Services.

Item number	Title	Author	Date	comment
JJK1941-001	Letter from Capt. Sheridan, How to get into proceed	Capt Sheridan, Navy \Friend from NY Athletic Clubc	07 Jan 1941	Recommending what J.Keefe should do to get into navy
JJK1941-002	Letter telling what have to do to get into USA Navy	Captain, Later Admiral Dan Callagahan, Naval Assistant to USA President Roosevelt	24 Feb 1941	Response to JJK request for special consideration.
JJK1941-003	Travel Orders from Georgetown British Guiana to New York	Lt Colonel core of engineers, D.A. D. Ogden	25 Mar 1942	Returning after stint from Sept 1941
JJK1941-004	Letter response to request for Navy, Rejection	Frank Knox, Secretary of Navy USA	20 Oct 1942	Reason Given was physical condition
JJK1941-005	Letter steps which have to take to get in Merchant Marine.	L.F. Livingston, US Maritime service, Personnel Officer	11 Dec 1942	In response form JJK asking for information
JJK1941-006	Letter, in response to request of active duty, amphibious training center of army	Brigadier General, Frank A. Keating, US Army	23 April 1943	Rejected because of Physical
JJK1941-007	Letter from War Dept to J Keefe	H.B. Lewis, Brigadier General, Acting The Adjutant General, War Dept USA	20 May 1943	Telling why could not let in Army
JJK1941-008	Letter, from The Citadel in Quebec, Military Duty with British Forces	Assistant to Winston Churchill,	27 Aug 1943	Response to Request Military Duty with British Forces, Said would hear further
JJK1941-009	Letter Military Duty with British Forces	Office of the High Commissioner, Quebec? Representative of Winston Churchill,	04 Sept 1943	Because of Physical Condition could not serve in Military of British.
JJK1941-010	Letter - Application for Commission in Marine core reserve.	Walter S. Alessandroni, First Lieutenant, US, Marine Corps, Assist to Officer in Charge.	17 Jan 1944	Sent to Whitehorse, Yukon Territory, Canada
JJK1941-011	Answer to letter to President Roosevelt.	Surgeon General C.R. Uphoff	28 Mar 1944	Sent an application to fill out, that would determine which positions best qualified to fill.

[See Document reference jk00mr26.doc]

[For Jack's statements on the Civil War, the Vietnam war and discussion of sons who did or did not serve in the armed forces see 15 April 2000 interview doc jkap16.doc]

End Notes Part B05

End Note [EN] Part-Sect-Note	Author FFF p.633	Source & Link to Bibliography in Part G	Abbreviated reference to Source	Page
B05-N01	Schlesinger, Arthur M., Jr.	A Life in the 20th Century	AL20C	Pp 125, 210, 242
B05-N02	Meyer, Robert S..	Peace Organizations Past and Present	POPP	pp
B05-N03	Meltzer, Milton.	Ain’t Gonna Study War No More: The Story of American Peace Seeker	AGSW	pp
B05-N04	Meltzer, Milton.	Ain’t Gonna Study War No More: The Story of American Peace Seeker	AGSW	pp
B05-N05	Schlesinger, Arthur M., Jr.	A Life in the 20th Century	AL20C	Pp 245
B05-N06	Schlesinger, Arthur M., Jr.	A Life in the 20th Century	AL20C	Pp
B05-N07	Jeffries, John W..	Wartime in America: The World War II Home Front	WA	Pp 172
B05-N08	Jeffries, John W..	Wartime in America: The World War II Home Front	WA	Pp 171
B05-N09	Kennedy, David M.	Freedom From Fear: The American People in Depression and War 1929-1945	FFF	Pp 633
B05-N10	Schlesinger, Arthur M., Jr.	A Life in the 20th Century	AL20C	Pp 263

<<<go back to Paper Table of contents page<<